## Ghost

### Overview

A ghost is commonly described as the spirit or soul of a deceased person or animal that appears to the living. Ghosts are often depicted as lingering spirits that have unfinished business, seek revenge, or are trapped in a particular location. Beliefs and interpretations of ghosts vary widely across cultures and religions. In folklore, a ghost is the soul or spirit of a dead person or non-human animal that is believed to be able to appear to the living. In ghostlore, descriptions of ghosts vary widely, from an invisible presence to translucent or barely visible wispy shapes to realistic, lifelike forms. The deliberate attempt to contact the spirit of a deceased person is known as necromancy, or in spiritism as a séance. Other terms associated with it are apparition, haunt, haint, phantom, poltergeist, shade, specter, spirit, spook, wraith, demon, and ghoul.

The belief in the existence of an afterlife, as well as manifestations of the spirits of the dead, is widespread, dating back to animism or ancestor worship in pre-literate cultures. Certain religious practices—funeral rites, exorcisms, and some practices of spiritualism and ritual magic—are specifically designed to rest the spirits of the dead. Ghosts are generally described as solitary, human-like essences, though stories of ghostly armies and the ghosts of animals other than humans have also been recounted.[2][3] They are believed to haunt particular locations, objects, or people they were associated with in life. According to a 2009 study by the Pew Research Center, 18% of Americans say they have seen a ghost.[4]

The overwhelming consensus of science is that there is no proof that ghosts exist.[5] Their existence is impossible to falsify,[5] and ghost hunting has been classified as pseudoscience.[6][7][8] Despite centuries of investigation, there is no scientific evidence that any location is inhabited by the spirits of the dead.[6][9] Historically, certain toxic and psychoactive plants (such as datura and hyoscyamus niger), whose use has long been associated with necromancy and the underworld, have been shown to contain anticholinergic compounds that are pharmacologically linked to dementia (specifically DLB) as well as histological patterns of neurodegeneration.[10][11] Recent research has indicated that ghost sightings may be related to degenerative brain diseases such as Alzheimer's disease.[12] Common prescription medication and over-the-counter drugs (such as sleep aids) may also, in rare instances, cause ghost-like hallucinations, particularly zolpidem and diphenhydramine.[13] Older reports linked carbon monoxide poisoning to ghost-like hallucinations.[14]

In folklore studies, ghosts fall within the motif index designation E200–E599 (“Ghosts and other revenants”).

### Terminology Further information: Soul, Genius (mythology), and Geist

The English word ghost continues Old English gāst. Stemming from Proto-Germanic *gaistaz, it is cognate with Old Frisian gāst, Old Saxon gēst, Old Dutch gēst, and Old High German geist. Although this form is not attested in North Germanic and East Germanic languages (the equivalent word in Gothic is ahma, Old Norse has andi m., önd f.), it appears to be a dental suffix derivative of pre-Germanic *ghois-d-oz ('fury, anger'), which is comparable to Sanskrit héḍas ('anger') and Avestan zōižda- ('terrible, ugly'). The prior Proto-Indo-European form is reconstructed as *ǵʰéys-d-os, from the root *ǵʰéys-, which is reflected in Old Norse geisa ('to rage') and *geiski ('fear'; cf. geiskafullr 'full of fear'), in Gothic usgaisjan ('to terrify') and usgaisnan ('to be terrified'), as well as in Avestan zōiš- (cf. zōišnu 'shivering, trembling').[15][16][17]

The Germanic word is recorded as masculine only, but likely continues a neuter s-stem. The original meaning of the Germanic word would thus have been an animating principle of the mind, in particular capable of excitation and fury (compare óðr). In Germanic paganism, “Germanic Mercury”, and the later Odin, was at the same time the conductor of the dead and the “lord of fury” leading the Wild Hunt.

Besides denoting the human spirit or soul, both of the living and the deceased, the Old English word is used as a synonym of Latin spiritus also in the meaning of “breath” or “blast” from the earliest attestations (9th century). It could also denote any good or evil spirit, such as angels and demons; the Anglo-Saxon gospel refers to the demonic possession of Matthew 12:43 as se unclæna gast. Also from the Old English period, the word could denote the spirit of God, viz. the “Holy Ghost”.

The now-prevailing sense of “the soul of a deceased person, spoken of as appearing in a visible form” only emerges in Middle English (14th century). The modern noun does, however, retain a wider field of application, extending on one hand to “soul”, “spirit”, “vital principle”, “mind”, or “psyche”, the seat of feeling, thought, and moral judgement; on the other hand used figuratively of any shadowy outline, or fuzzy or unsubstantial image; in optics, photography, and cinematography especially, a flare, secondary image, or spurious signal.[18]

The synonym spook is a Dutch loanword, akin to Low German spôk (of uncertain etymology); it entered the English language via American English in the 19th century.[19][20][21][22] Alternative words in modern usage include spectre (altn. specter; from Latin spectrum), the Scottish wraith (of obscure origin), phantom (via French ultimately from Greek phantasma, compare fantasy) and apparition. The term shade in classical mythology translates Greek σκιά,[23] or Latin umbra,[24] in reference to the notion of spirits in the Greek underworld. The term poltergeist is a German word, literally a “noisy ghost”, for a spirit said to manifest itself by invisibly moving and influencing objects.[25]

Wraith is a Scots word for ghost, spectre, or apparition. It appeared in Scottish Romanticist literature, and acquired the more general or figurative sense of portent or omen. In 18th- to 19th-century Scottish literature, it also applied to aquatic spirits. The word has no commonly accepted etymology; the OED notes “of obscure origin” only.[26] An association with the verb writhe was the etymology favored by J. R. R. Tolkien.[27] Tolkien's use of the word in the naming of the creatures known as the Ringwraiths has influenced later usage in fantasy literature. Bogey[28] or bogy/bogie is a term for a ghost, and appears in Scottish poet John Mayne's Hallowe'en in 1780.[29][30]

A revenant is a deceased person returning from the dead to haunt the living, either as a disembodied ghost or alternatively as an animated (“undead”) corpse. Also related is the concept of a fetch, the visible ghost or spirit of a person yet alive.

### Characteristics

• Appearance: Ghosts are often described as translucent or shadowy figures. They may appear in a form resembling their living self or as a vague, amorphous presence.
• Behavior: Common behaviors associated with ghosts include haunting specific locations, making noises, or interacting with the living in subtle ways. Some ghosts are said to be malevolent, while others are benign or even helpful.
• Manifestation: Ghosts can manifest in various ways, including visual apparitions, cold spots, or disturbances in electronic equipment. They may also be perceived through sounds such as footsteps, voices, or whispers.

Anthropological context Further information: Animism, Ancestor worship, Origin of religion, and Anthropology of religion

A notion of the transcendent, supernatural, or numinous, usually involving entities like ghosts, demons, or deities, is a cultural universal.[31] In pre-literate folk religions, these beliefs are often summarized under animism and ancestor worship. Some people believe the ghost or spirit never leaves Earth until there is no-one left to remember the one who died.[32]

In many cultures, malignant, restless ghosts are distinguished from the more benign spirits involved in ancestor worship.[33]

Ancestor worship typically involves rites intended to prevent revenants, vengeful spirits of the dead, imagined as starving and envious of the living. Strategies for preventing revenants may either include sacrifice, i.e., giving the dead food and drink to pacify them, or magical banishment of the deceased to force them not to return. Ritual feeding of the dead is performed in traditions like the Chinese Ghost Festival or the Western All Souls' Day. Magical banishment of the dead is present in many of the world's burial customs. The bodies found in many tumuli (kurgan) had been ritually bound before burial,[34] and the custom of binding the dead persists, for example, in rural Anatolia.[35]

Nineteenth-century anthropologist James Frazer stated in his classic work The Golden Bough that souls were seen as the creature within that animated the body.[36] Ghosts and the afterlife Further information: Soul, Psyche (psychology), Underworld, Hungry ghost, and Psychopomp Further information: Ghost Festival, All Souls' Day, Day of the Dead, and Ghost Dance

Although the human soul was sometimes symbolically or literally depicted in ancient cultures as a bird or other animal, it appears to have been widely held that the soul was an exact reproduction of the body in every feature, even down to clothing the person wore. This is depicted in artwork from various ancient cultures, including such works as the Egyptian Book of the Dead, which shows deceased people in the afterlife appearing much as they did before death, including the style of dress.

### Cultural Perspectives

• Western Folklore: In many Western traditions, ghosts are often seen as spirits of the deceased who have unresolved issues or are unable to move on to the afterlife. Ghost stories and hauntings are a popular genre in literature and film.
• Eastern Beliefs: In some Eastern cultures, such as in Chinese and Japanese traditions, ghosts (or spirits) may be linked to ancestor worship and can influence family members’ lives. Ghosts in these cultures might be seen as protectors or beings seeking aid.
• Indigenous Traditions: Various indigenous cultures have their own unique beliefs about spirits and ghosts, often involving complex relationships between the living and the deceased. Ghosts may be viewed as ancestral spirits or guardians.

### Common Ghostly Phenomena

• Apparitions: Visual sightings of a ghostly figure or shadow.
• Poltergeists: Ghosts that cause physical disturbances, such as moving objects or creating noise.
• Residual Hauntings: Repeated occurrences of ghostly activity that seem to replay past events without interaction with the living.
• Intelligent Hauntings: Ghosts that interact with the living and appear to be aware of their surroundings.

### Ghost Hunting

Ghost hunting involves investigating locations reputed to be haunted to find evidence of paranormal activity. Methods used include:

• EVP (Electronic Voice Phenomena) Recording: Capturing unexplained voices or sounds using audio equipment.
• Thermal Cameras: Detecting temperature changes that might indicate a ghostly presence.
• EMF (Electromagnetic Field) Meters: Measuring fluctuations in electromagnetic fields that are thought to be linked to ghost activity.

## Fear of Ghosts

Main article: Fear of ghosts

Yūrei (Japanese ghost) from the Hyakkai Zukan, c. 1737

While deceased ancestors are universally regarded as venerable and often believed to have a continued presence in some form of afterlife, the spirit of a deceased person that persists in the material world (a ghost) is regarded as an unnatural or undesirable state of affairs. The idea of ghosts or revenants is universally associated with a reaction of fear. This is true in pre-modern folk cultures and remains an integral aspect of modern ghost stories, Gothic horror, and other supernatural fiction.

### Common Attributes

A widespread belief concerning ghosts is that they are composed of a misty, airy, or subtle material. Anthropologists link this idea to early beliefs that ghosts were the person's spirit, most noticeable in ancient cultures as a person’s breath, which appears as a white mist in colder climates. This belief may have fostered the metaphorical meaning of “breath” in certain languages, such as Latin *spiritus* and Greek *pneuma*, which came to mean the soul. In the Bible, God is depicted as synthesizing Adam, as a living soul, from the dust of the Earth and the breath of God.

In many traditional accounts, ghosts were thought to be deceased people seeking vengeance (vengeful ghosts) or imprisoned on Earth for bad deeds done during life. The appearance of a ghost has often been regarded as an omen or portent of death. Seeing one’s own ghostly double or “fetch” is a related omen of death. The impetus for haunting is commonly considered to be an unnatural death.

### Notable Ghost Legends

White Ladies: White ladies were reported to appear in many rural areas and are believed to have died tragically or suffered trauma in life. Legends of White Ladies are found around the world, often associated with themes of losing a child or husband, and a sense of purity, as opposed to the Lady in Red ghost, who is mostly attributed to a jilted lover or prostitute. The White Lady ghost is often connected to an individual family line or regarded as a harbinger of death similar to a banshee.

Ghost Ships: Legends of ghost ships have existed since the 18th century, with the Flying Dutchman being the most notable. This theme has been used in literature, such as *The Rime of the Ancient Mariner* by Coleridge.

Depictions: Ghosts are often depicted as being covered in a shroud and/or dragging chains.

### Locale

Haunted Houses: A place where ghosts are reported is described as haunted and is often seen as being inhabited by spirits of deceased individuals who may have been former residents or familiar with the property. Supernatural activity inside homes is said to be associated with violent or tragic events in the building’s past, such as murder, accidental death, or suicide. However, not all hauntings are related to violent deaths. Many cultures and religions believe that the essence of a being, such as the 'soul', continues to exist. Some religious views argue that the 'spirits' of those who have died have not 'passed over' and are trapped inside properties where their memories and energy are strong.

### History

Ancient Sumerian Cylinder Seal: Showing the god Dumuzid being tortured in the Underworld by galla demons.

Ancient Near East and Egypt: There are many references to ghosts in Mesopotamian religions and ancient Egyptian culture. Ghosts were thought to be created at the time of death, taking on the memory and personality of the deceased. They were expected to be given offerings by relatives, or they could inflict misfortune and illness on the living. Egyptian beliefs about the afterlife evolved over more than 2,500 years, with beliefs recorded in hieroglyphs, papyrus scrolls, and tomb paintings. The concept of mummies coming back to life and seeking vengeance has spawned a genre of horror stories and films.

Classical Antiquity:

• Archaic and Classical Greece: Ghosts appeared in Homer's *Odyssey* and *Iliad*. Initially, they were described as vanishing vapor, but by the 5th century BC, they had become haunting, frightening creatures. The Greeks believed that ghosts hovered near their resting place and were to be ritually mourned through public ceremonies, sacrifices, and libations.
• Roman Empire and Late Antiquity: Romans used ghosts for revenge by scratching curses on lead or pottery and placing them into graves. Plutarch described hauntings, and Pliny the Younger wrote about a haunted house in Athens. The New Testament includes instances where Jesus had to convince his disciples that he was not a ghost.

Middle Ages: Ghosts in medieval Europe were categorized as either the souls of the dead or demons. Souls of the dead returned for specific purposes, while demonic ghosts existed to torment the living. Souls in Purgatory were believed to appear to ask for prayers to end their suffering. Medieval European ghosts were often more substantial and could be physically restrained until a priest could arrive. There were also reports of ghostly armies and battles.

European Renaissance to Romanticism: Renaissance magic saw a revived interest in the occult, including necromancy. The Child Ballad *Sweet William's Ghost* recounts a ghost returning to his fiancée, begging her to free him from his promise to marry her. This reflects the belief that the dead haunted their lovers if they took up with someone new without formal release. Ghosts stemming from excessive grief or mourning are also a common theme.

Modern Period:

• Spiritualist Movement: Spiritualism, a belief system that developed in the United States and peaked from the 1840s to the 1920s, postulates that spirits of the dead can be contacted by mediums. The movement was popular in English-speaking countries and had a significant influence on Spiritualist churches.
• Spiritism: Based on the Spiritist Codification by Allan Kardec, Spiritism involves communicating with spirits and has adherents worldwide, including in Brazil, which has the largest proportion of followers.

Scientific Perspectives

Historical Explanations

Modern Skepticism

Environmental and Neurological Factors

Religious and Cultural Perspectives

Judaism

Christianity

Islam

Indian Religions

Buddhism

African Folklore

European Folklore

South and Southeast Asia

Austronesia

Tibet

Ghosts in Different Cultures

East and Central Asia

China

Japan

Americas

Mexico

United States

Depictions in the Arts

Early Depictions

Victorian and Edwardian Era

Modern Era

Metaphorical Usages

References