=== Arnaldus Villanovanus ===

Arnaldus de Villa Nova (also called Arnaldus de Villanueva, Arnaldus Villanovanus, Arnaud de Ville-Neuve, or Arnau de Vilanova, c. 1235-1311) was an alchemist, pharmacist, astrologer, and physician. As with other alchemists of his time, most of the details of his life are obscure.

He was born in Valencia, and appears to have been of Catalan origin. He studied chemistry, medicine, physics, and Arabic philosophy. After living at the court of Aragon and teaching many years at Montpellier School of Medicine, he went to Paris, where he gained considerable reputation. However, he incurred the enmity of the ecclesiastics and was forced to flee, eventually finding asylum in Sicily. Around 1313, he was summoned to Avignon by Pope Clement V, who was ill, but he died on the voyage off the coast of Genoa.

He is credited with translating a number of medical texts from Arabic, including works by Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Qusta ibn Luqa (Costa ben Luca), and Galen. Many alchemical writings, including *Thesaurus Thesaurorum* or *Rosarius Philosophorum*, *Novum Lumen*, and *Flos Florum*, are also ascribed to him, but their authenticity is very doubtful. Collected editions of these works were published at Lyon in 1504 and 1532 (with a biography by Symphorianus Campegius), at Basel in 1585, at Frankfurt in 1603, and at Lyon in 1686. He is also reputed to be the author of various medical works, including *Breviarium Practicae*. Among his achievements was the discovery of carbon monoxide and pure alcohol.

At Barcelona, he had John Casamila as a teacher, thought highly of Galen, and among the Arabs cared only for Rhazes. He taught medicine, botany, and alchemy at Barcelona, Montpellier, and Paris. His life was a wandering one; besides the cities mentioned, he lived for considerable periods in Lyons, Avignon, Rome, Florence, Bologna, Naples, and Palermo.

He was considered superior to all other physicians and alchemists, so he was frequently summoned by popes and princes. Thus, he was at times at the papal court during the reigns of Innocent V, Boniface VIII, Benedict XI, and Clement V. He was also the personal physician of Pedro III and James II of Aragon, Robert of Naples, and Frederick II of Sicily.

He was repeatedly obliged to move due to the Inquisition in Spain and Paris sentencing him to banishment for his fantastic writings, which were sometimes deemed heretical. Due to the large number of writings still extant bearing his name—some evidently spurious, others doubtful—it is not easy to judge Villanovanus.

His reputation in alchemy was excelled only by that of Raymond Lully, who was regarded as his pupil. Modern criticism has assigned to an earlier age many chemical discoveries formerly attributed to Villanovanus, such as acids, alcohol, and distillation. Nevertheless, several of his works were very important in placing medicine and pharmacology on a scientific basis; they show independent judgment, ripe experience, and great humanity.

Although a layman, he wrote extensively on theology. His alchemistic and astrological bent led him into erroneous opinions regarding the Church, the Mass, Antichrist, the end of the world, and the person of Christ. The first complete edition of his works was issued in Lyons in 1504, reissued at the same place in 1520 and 1532 (folio). The most complete edition is that of Taurellus (Basle, 1585), with a biography of Arnaldus. For the individual works, see in particular Haser, op. cit. in the bibliography below. Several of them were repeatedly reprinted before 1500.

He died while on his way to visit the sick pontiff, Clement V.